Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland Bulletin
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Nr. 4, Review of Survey activities 2003, pp. 81-84 |
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81
The climate of Europe is strongly influenced by heat trans-
port by ocean currents flowing from equatorial regions
towards the Arctic (Clark et al. 2002). During recent years,
research has been increasingly focused on factors affecting
this circulation, e.g. the freshwater budget of the Arctic
which is influenced by glacial meltwater from North and East
Greenland outlet glaciers (Linthout et al. 2000, Mayer et al.
2000). Furthermore, the climate is affected by snow cover
that, apart from its contribution to the freshwater budget,
provides feedback effects in that it reflects most of the solar
radiation. Apart from Arctic sea-ice cover, the Greenland Ice
Sheet is the largest permanent ice- and snow-covered area in
the northern hemisphere, with an area of 1.67
port by ocean currents flowing from equatorial regions
towards the Arctic (Clark et al. 2002). During recent years,
research has been increasingly focused on factors affecting
this circulation, e.g. the freshwater budget of the Arctic
which is influenced by glacial meltwater from North and East
Greenland outlet glaciers (Linthout et al. 2000, Mayer et al.
2000). Furthermore, the climate is affected by snow cover
that, apart from its contribution to the freshwater budget,
provides feedback effects in that it reflects most of the solar
radiation. Apart from Arctic sea-ice cover, the Greenland Ice
Sheet is the largest permanent ice- and snow-covered area in
the northern hemisphere, with an area of 1.67
× 10
6
km
2
and
by far the largest storage of ice with a volume of 2.93
× 10
6
km
3
(Bamber et al. 2001). Most of the mass loss from the
Greenland Ice Sheet (the least known mass-balance parame-
ter) occurs in the marginal region of the ice sheet, which is
also the area where the largest changes in albedo occur. The
Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS) has
for many years carried out research along the Greenland Ice
Sheet margin to monitor changes of mass balance and melt
conditions.
ter) occurs in the marginal region of the ice sheet, which is
also the area where the largest changes in albedo occur. The
Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS) has
for many years carried out research along the Greenland Ice
Sheet margin to monitor changes of mass balance and melt
conditions.
Changes in mass balance:
present knowledge
present knowledge
Changes in mass balance over the interior part of the
Greenland Ice Sheet can conveniently be assessed from snow
pits and ice cores, because the `history' is preserved as annual
layers in the accumulation zone. At the ice margin this strati-
graphic approach cannot be used due to melting of the sur-
face. Monitoring of ablation is therefore carried out using
stakes drilled into the ice. Until about 1980, mass balance
measurements in Greenland were few and of short duration.
During the 1980s, intensive studies were initiated, motivated
mainly by hydropower investigations (Weidick 1995). This
was followed by a period in the early and middle 1990s when
climate-related mass-balance campaigns were carried out in
North-East and North Greenland in conjunction with geo-
logical mapping expeditions (Bøggild et al. 1994; Thomsen et
al. 1997). An overview of the various field activities is given
in Fig. 1. An analysis of field results together with model esti-
mates has yielded ablation rates varying from up to 10 m/yr
Greenland Ice Sheet can conveniently be assessed from snow
pits and ice cores, because the `history' is preserved as annual
layers in the accumulation zone. At the ice margin this strati-
graphic approach cannot be used due to melting of the sur-
face. Monitoring of ablation is therefore carried out using
stakes drilled into the ice. Until about 1980, mass balance
measurements in Greenland were few and of short duration.
During the 1980s, intensive studies were initiated, motivated
mainly by hydropower investigations (Weidick 1995). This
was followed by a period in the early and middle 1990s when
climate-related mass-balance campaigns were carried out in
North-East and North Greenland in conjunction with geo-
logical mapping expeditions (Bøggild et al. 1994; Thomsen et
al. 1997). An overview of the various field activities is given
in Fig. 1. An analysis of field results together with model esti-
mates has yielded ablation rates varying from up to 10 m/yr
in the southernmost part of Greenland to a few metres per
year in North-East Greenland (Huybrechts et al. 1991).
year in North-East Greenland (Huybrechts et al. 1991).
Since the traverse of the ice sheet during the Expédition
Glaciologique Internationale au Groenland (E.G.I.G.) in
19571960, locations on this traverse route have been used
for several investigations, including long-term surface-change
and mass-balance studies (Finsterwalder 1959; Fischer et al.
19571960, locations on this traverse route have been used
for several investigations, including long-term surface-change
and mass-balance studies (Finsterwalder 1959; Fischer et al.
Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland Bulletin 4, 8184 (2004) © GEUS, 2004
Towards an assessment of the balance state of the
Greenland Ice Sheet
Greenland Ice Sheet
Carl E. Bøggild, Christoph Mayer, Steffen Podlech, Andrea Taurisano and Søren Nielsen
Fig. 1. Locations on the Greenland Ice Sheet margin where mass balance
investigations have been carried out, including recent activities by the
authors.
1995). Major advances in the assessment of the Greenland
Ice Sheet mass balance were achieved during the Program for
Arctic Regional Climate Assessment (PARCA) between 1991
and 1999. The project was initiated with a balance assess-
ment around the 2000 m altitude contour on the ice sheet,
and was gradually expanded with add-on projects into a
large-scale, multidisciplinary project to determine the bal-
ance state of the ice sheet (Thomas et al. 2001). These large-
scale investigations have incorporated both visible and radar
satellite images, airborne radar depth sounding, multi-para-
meter core analysis, weather stations, climate-modelling etc.
Most studies have been carried out in the interior parts of the
Ice Sheet mass balance were achieved during the Program for
Arctic Regional Climate Assessment (PARCA) between 1991
and 1999. The project was initiated with a balance assess-
ment around the 2000 m altitude contour on the ice sheet,
and was gradually expanded with add-on projects into a
large-scale, multidisciplinary project to determine the bal-
ance state of the ice sheet (Thomas et al. 2001). These large-
scale investigations have incorporated both visible and radar
satellite images, airborne radar depth sounding, multi-para-
meter core analysis, weather stations, climate-modelling etc.
Most studies have been carried out in the interior parts of the
ice sheet, where spatial variability of accumulation, ice thick-
ness and other factors are small compared to the marginal
regions. Hence, coverage over large areas can more easily be
obtained from remote sensing data, combined with a few
observations and ground-truth calibrations.
ness and other factors are small compared to the marginal
regions. Hence, coverage over large areas can more easily be
obtained from remote sensing data, combined with a few
observations and ground-truth calibrations.
The PARCA campaign strongly improved the knowledge
of snow accumulation distribution and provided a clear esti-
mate of ice thickness and volume of the ice sheet. Although
rather large spatial and temporal variability in local accumu-
lation was demonstrated, the interior of the ice sheet as a
whole was shown to be in approximate balance (Thomas et
al. 2001). However, airborne laser altimetry extended obser-
vations further towards the ice margin and documented rela-
tively rapid thinning particularly in the south to
south-eastern and north-western parts of the ice sheet (Fig. 2;
Krabill et al. 1999).
mate of ice thickness and volume of the ice sheet. Although
rather large spatial and temporal variability in local accumu-
lation was demonstrated, the interior of the ice sheet as a
whole was shown to be in approximate balance (Thomas et
al. 2001). However, airborne laser altimetry extended obser-
vations further towards the ice margin and documented rela-
tively rapid thinning particularly in the south to
south-eastern and north-western parts of the ice sheet (Fig. 2;
Krabill et al. 1999).
In the late 1990s, an analysis of elevation change history
and mass balance was carried out by GEUS at two confined
outlet glaciers, Sermilik Bræ in South Greenland and
Qamanaarsuup Sermia in West Greenland (Figs 1, 3). Both
studies confirm the observed thinning from laser altimetry by
Krabill et al. (1999). The laser altimetry results are, however,
restricted to the period from 1991 to 2001, whereas the
GEUS elevation studies could be extended back to around
1950 using topographic models based on the earliest aerial
photographs available. This longer time frame of the GEUS
studies provides a more reliable estimate of the balance state,
since the effects of year-to-year variability are reduced.
Preliminary results show that the average thinning of the ice
sheet margin over the last five decades may locally exceed the
laser altimetry estimates of 1000 mm/yr in the areas of inves-
tigation. The observed thinning at Sermilik Bræ ranges from
2000 to 8000 mm/yr, while at Qamanaarsuup Sermia thin-
ning rates of around 1000 mm/yr have been found. The thin-
ning appears to be only in part due to increased melting at
both sites.
outlet glaciers, Sermilik Bræ in South Greenland and
Qamanaarsuup Sermia in West Greenland (Figs 1, 3). Both
studies confirm the observed thinning from laser altimetry by
Krabill et al. (1999). The laser altimetry results are, however,
restricted to the period from 1991 to 2001, whereas the
GEUS elevation studies could be extended back to around
1950 using topographic models based on the earliest aerial
photographs available. This longer time frame of the GEUS
studies provides a more reliable estimate of the balance state,
since the effects of year-to-year variability are reduced.
Preliminary results show that the average thinning of the ice
sheet margin over the last five decades may locally exceed the
laser altimetry estimates of 1000 mm/yr in the areas of inves-
tigation. The observed thinning at Sermilik Bræ ranges from
2000 to 8000 mm/yr, while at Qamanaarsuup Sermia thin-
ning rates of around 1000 mm/yr have been found. The thin-
ning appears to be only in part due to increased melting at
both sites.
Towards automatic ablation observations
The observed strong thinning of the Greenland Ice Sheet
margin has called for the development of new automatic data
collection methods. Traditionally, these measurements have
been made with stakes drilled into the ice that were periodi-
cally visited to determine surface lowering by melting.
However, the stakes need to be re-drilled at least once during
the ablation season in order to secure a continuous time
series. This is a highly labour-intensive and costly way to
retrieve ablation data, particularly in view of the approxi-
mately 5000 km long perimeter of the ice sheet margin. To
resolve this dilemma an automatic mass balance station
(AMS) has been under development at GEUS since 2001
margin has called for the development of new automatic data
collection methods. Traditionally, these measurements have
been made with stakes drilled into the ice that were periodi-
cally visited to determine surface lowering by melting.
However, the stakes need to be re-drilled at least once during
the ablation season in order to secure a continuous time
series. This is a highly labour-intensive and costly way to
retrieve ablation data, particularly in view of the approxi-
mately 5000 km long perimeter of the ice sheet margin. To
resolve this dilemma an automatic mass balance station
(AMS) has been under development at GEUS since 2001
82
Fig. 2. Elevation changes in cm/yr on the Greenland Ice Sheet from air-
borne laser altimetry detected during the PARCA campaign (ref.:
http://aol.wff.nasa.gov/aoltm.html). Blue colour tones indicate areas of
thinning.
(Mayer et al. 2002), which, with a new concept of ablation
measurements, will allow uninterrupted operation for several
years. The most recent design combines a sturdy tripod with
a specially developed sensor system that is coupled to an
automatic, satellite-based data transmission system enabling
data retrieval at six-hour intervals (Bøggild et al. in press).
measurements, will allow uninterrupted operation for several
years. The most recent design combines a sturdy tripod with
a specially developed sensor system that is coupled to an
automatic, satellite-based data transmission system enabling
data retrieval at six-hour intervals (Bøggild et al. in press).
Future perspectives
Present knowledge of the balance state of the ice sheet reveals
that the ice margin is thinning rather rapidly in the south-
eastern and north-western parts of the ice sheet (Krabill et al.
1999). This is in contrast to earlier sensitivity estimates of ice
sheet thinning during a warming climate (Huybrechts et al.
1991), that indicated the south-western and north-eastern
marginal regions to react most strongly by thinning of the
margin. Our present understanding of the climate sensitivity
of the ice sheet margin is evidently insufficient. Surface
observations are unfortunately lacking from several areas
showing the most pronounced thinning in remote sensing
data, including Melville Bugten in North-West Greenland
and the ice margin south of Tasiilaq, East Greenland (Fig. 2).
that the ice margin is thinning rather rapidly in the south-
eastern and north-western parts of the ice sheet (Krabill et al.
1999). This is in contrast to earlier sensitivity estimates of ice
sheet thinning during a warming climate (Huybrechts et al.
1991), that indicated the south-western and north-eastern
marginal regions to react most strongly by thinning of the
margin. Our present understanding of the climate sensitivity
of the ice sheet margin is evidently insufficient. Surface
observations are unfortunately lacking from several areas
showing the most pronounced thinning in remote sensing
data, including Melville Bugten in North-West Greenland
and the ice margin south of Tasiilaq, East Greenland (Fig. 2).
Studies of the cryosphere (snow and ice on sea and land)
have gained considerable focus in recent years, and new satel-
lites have been developed specifically dedicated to monitor
elevation changes from space. In 2003, NASA (National
Aeronautics and Space Administration) launched the ICE-
lites have been developed specifically dedicated to monitor
elevation changes from space. In 2003, NASA (National
Aeronautics and Space Administration) launched the ICE-
SAT satellite, and in 2005 ESA (European Space Agency) will
follow with the CRYOSAT satellite. However, the satellites
only detect elevation changes and not the underlying causes.
Additional in situ observations of climate and mass balance
using AMS are needed for determining the annual mass bal-
ance `turn-over' and detect possible changes. The new sta-
tions will be able to measure ice movement as well as
ablation, although observations of elevation changes over sev-
eral years will be required in order to derive long-term trends
not biased by inter-annual fluctuations. Alternatively it may
be possible to develop digital elevation models by making use
of the Danish archives of aerial photographs dating back to
about 1950. With the launch of new satellites and a more
widespread use of AMS a detailed monitoring of the cryo-
sphere becomes more realistic. Recently, a European Union
programme (EuroClim) was initiated to develop a climate
change monitoring system focusing on the cryosphere. One
part of this system (under development at GEUS) aims at
detecting changes in surface conditions of the Greenland Ice
Sheet (Fig. 4). Furthermore, initiatives have been taken
towards integrating land- and sea-ice studies to determine the
climate sensitivity of the cryosphere and, not least, the impact
of the cryosphere on the climate system. Both marine and
terrestrial ice show similar interactions with climate.
follow with the CRYOSAT satellite. However, the satellites
only detect elevation changes and not the underlying causes.
Additional in situ observations of climate and mass balance
using AMS are needed for determining the annual mass bal-
ance `turn-over' and detect possible changes. The new sta-
tions will be able to measure ice movement as well as
ablation, although observations of elevation changes over sev-
eral years will be required in order to derive long-term trends
not biased by inter-annual fluctuations. Alternatively it may
be possible to develop digital elevation models by making use
of the Danish archives of aerial photographs dating back to
about 1950. With the launch of new satellites and a more
widespread use of AMS a detailed monitoring of the cryo-
sphere becomes more realistic. Recently, a European Union
programme (EuroClim) was initiated to develop a climate
change monitoring system focusing on the cryosphere. One
part of this system (under development at GEUS) aims at
detecting changes in surface conditions of the Greenland Ice
Sheet (Fig. 4). Furthermore, initiatives have been taken
towards integrating land- and sea-ice studies to determine the
climate sensitivity of the cryosphere and, not least, the impact
of the cryosphere on the climate system. Both marine and
terrestrial ice show similar interactions with climate.
83
Fig. 3. Observed changes at Sermilik Bræ and Qamanaarsuup Sermia in historical time. A: Fjord and glacier front of Sermilik Bræ in 2001 recorded by
ASTER imagery. The lateral margins of the drainage area are indicated by thin black lines. B: Terminus changes of Qamanaarsuup Sermia since the
last advance during the Little Ice Age (18801890; Beschel 1961). The vertical aerial photograph was taken by the Danish Geodetic Institute in 1968
(reproduced by permission A.200/87).
84
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Authors' addresses
C.E.B., C.M., S.P. & S.N., Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland, Øster Voldgade 10, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark. E-mail:
ceb@geus.dk
A.T., Norwegian Polar Institute, Polarmiliøsenteret, N-9296 Tromsø, Norway.
C.E.B., C.M., S.P. & S.N., Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland, Øster Voldgade 10, DK-1350 Copenhagen K, Denmark. E-mail:
ceb@geus.dk
A.T., Norwegian Polar Institute, Polarmiliøsenteret, N-9296 Tromsø, Norway.
Fig. 4. Surface conditions over the Greenland Ice Sheet from MODIS
imagery from August 2002, as part of the EuroClim Project. The surface
is divided into several classes, ranging from pure ice at the ice sheet
margin to dry snow in the interior. Calibration of the results requires
confirmation by ground observations and high-resolution satellite data.
