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Theme Magazines and Fact Sheets
Download "Geology and Ore no. 12, February 2008" go12.pdf (~4.9 mb)
No. 12 - February 2008
Minerals in
Greenland
Minerals are an integrated part of the
geological history. The variation and
wealth of minerals in Greenland have
been significant in rendering the
country with its prominent place on
the geological world map, shared
with only very few other regions. In
their widest context, minerals under-
standably attracted a great deal of
attention from the first explorations
in the early 1800s.
geological history. The variation and
wealth of minerals in Greenland have
been significant in rendering the
country with its prominent place on
the geological world map, shared
with only very few other regions. In
their widest context, minerals under-
standably attracted a great deal of
attention from the first explorations
in the early 1800s.
Introduction
Minerals and mineral resources have been
identified as a cornerstone of Greenland's
economical development. Therefore many
initiatives have been implemented to accel-
erate the establishment of the mineral in-
dustry. After 150 years of almost continu-
ous mining, and following a brief break
since 1990, Greenland now seems to be
entering a new phase of mineral exploita-
tion, with the opening of new mines: a
gold mine in South Greenland in 2005 and
an olivine mine in West Greenland in 2005.
identified as a cornerstone of Greenland's
economical development. Therefore many
initiatives have been implemented to accel-
erate the establishment of the mineral in-
dustry. After 150 years of almost continu-
ous mining, and following a brief break
since 1990, Greenland now seems to be
entering a new phase of mineral exploita-
tion, with the opening of new mines: a
gold mine in South Greenland in 2005 and
an olivine mine in West Greenland in 2005.
From being a classical collection of
museum curiosities, the mineral wealth of
Greenland has turned into a foundation for
modern mineral exploitation. Today tradi-
tion and mineral know-how give us a
detailed picture of Greenland's mineral
resources. It all began in the early 1800s
when the German actor, playwright and
mineralogist, Karl Ludwig Giesecke, became
one of the first to work systematically with
Greenland's mineralogy. Giesecke stayed in
Berlin from February to June 1801, and
here he wrote a comprehensive `manu-
script' (350 pages) on the classification of
minerals. This `manuscript' was preserved
probably because Giesecke kept it with him
during all the six summers and seven win-
ters he later spent in Greenland. Many of
his belongings and mineral collections,
which Giesecke sent to Denmark on several
occasions during his travels in Greenland
1806-13, was seized by British warships
during the uncertain years following the
Napoleonic wars.
Greenland has turned into a foundation for
modern mineral exploitation. Today tradi-
tion and mineral know-how give us a
detailed picture of Greenland's mineral
resources. It all began in the early 1800s
when the German actor, playwright and
mineralogist, Karl Ludwig Giesecke, became
one of the first to work systematically with
Greenland's mineralogy. Giesecke stayed in
Berlin from February to June 1801, and
here he wrote a comprehensive `manu-
script' (350 pages) on the classification of
minerals. This `manuscript' was preserved
probably because Giesecke kept it with him
during all the six summers and seven win-
ters he later spent in Greenland. Many of
his belongings and mineral collections,
which Giesecke sent to Denmark on several
occasions during his travels in Greenland
1806-13, was seized by British warships
during the uncertain years following the
Napoleonic wars.
Giesecke travelled by umiaq - an open Inuit
skin boat - in South and West Greenland
from 1806-13. Several mineralogical records
were made during this long period and
these later formed the basis of modern min-
eralogical research of Greenland minerals.
At a site by Aluk near Kap Farvel, Giesecke
collected a black mineral, believing it to be
the well known mineral, hornblende.
Giesecke's samples from this trip were
stolen by English warships and ended with
Robert Allan, a Scottish mineralogist. A
Scottish chemist, Thomas Thomson, later
studied the samples and discovered that
they contained a hitherto unknown mineral
which he named `allanite' in 1811. All this
was due to the divisions in Europe caused
by the Napoleonic wars, which also meant
that Giesecke was unable to leave Green-
land. Since then, allanite has become
known as a common accessory mineral in
the granite bedrock areas the world over.
skin boat - in South and West Greenland
from 1806-13. Several mineralogical records
were made during this long period and
these later formed the basis of modern min-
eralogical research of Greenland minerals.
At a site by Aluk near Kap Farvel, Giesecke
collected a black mineral, believing it to be
the well known mineral, hornblende.
Giesecke's samples from this trip were
stolen by English warships and ended with
Robert Allan, a Scottish mineralogist. A
Scottish chemist, Thomas Thomson, later
studied the samples and discovered that
they contained a hitherto unknown mineral
which he named `allanite' in 1811. All this
was due to the divisions in Europe caused
by the Napoleonic wars, which also meant
that Giesecke was unable to leave Green-
land. Since then, allanite has become
known as a common accessory mineral in
the granite bedrock areas the world over.
Following Giesecke's journey, a research
tradition of the study of minerals developed
rapidly in Denmark and Greenland and this
influenced the studies of the geology of
Greenland and sharpened the awareness of
the significance of minerals in geological
rapidly in Denmark and Greenland and this
influenced the studies of the geology of
Greenland and sharpened the awareness of
the significance of minerals in geological
2
Slab of basalt from Disko in West Greenland studded with grains and crystals of metallic iron.
Field of view: 20 x 24 cm.
Field of view: 20 x 24 cm.
Well developed crystal of allanite from the type
locality near Aluk in south-east Greenland.
Crystal size: 1.2 x 3.5 cm. Photo RB.
locality near Aluk in south-east Greenland.
Crystal size: 1.2 x 3.5 cm. Photo RB.
Minerals in Greenland
2
Nalunaq
Ilímaussaq
Ivittuut
Maarmorilik
Kangerlussuaq
Skaergaard
I N L AND I C E
Kap Farvel
Qeqertarsuatsiaat
Maniitsoq
Sarfartoq
Disko
Mestersvig
Gardiner
Narsaarsuk
Aluk
Ameralik
500 km
Palaeogene basalts
CretaceousPalaeogene sediments, Nuussuaq Basin in
West Greenland and Kangerlussuaq Basin in East Greenland
CarboniferousPalaeogene sediments,
Wandel Sea Basin in eastern North Greenland
CarboniferousCretaceous sediments, North-East Greenland
CarboniferousCretaceous sediments,
Jameson Land Basin in East Greenland
Devonian Basin of North-East Greenland
Shelf
Trough
Caledonian orogenic belt
Meso- to Neoproterozoic sediments and volcanic rocks
Palaeoproterozoic orogenic belts
Archaean craton
Intrusive complexes: Palaeogene in East Greenland,
Mesoproterozoic in South Greenland (Gardar Province)
Mesoproterozoic in South Greenland (Gardar Province)
Fault, thrust
Lower Palaeozoic sediments, North Greenland,
Franklinian Basin
Franklinian Basin
GREENLAND
3
Geological map of Greenland with mineral localities
3
processes. Almost 80 recognised minerals
from Greenland were found and described
for the first time. A larger number of
known minerals were described in more
detail, contributing to the completion of the
geological history. Today more than 500
minerals from Greenland have been regis-
tered; a significant proportion of the world's
approximately 4000 known minerals.
from Greenland were found and described
for the first time. A larger number of
known minerals were described in more
detail, contributing to the completion of the
geological history. Today more than 500
minerals from Greenland have been regis-
tered; a significant proportion of the world's
approximately 4000 known minerals.
As the type locality for 77 minerals
(2008), Greenland has been rendered a spe-
cial place in mineral research, even though
many minerals are limited to unusual and
rare formations. At all events, several of
them have shown the way to understand-
ing the geological processes and identifying
possible deposits of mineral resources. In
naming minerals from type localities, miner-
alogists in complete accord with tradition,
have helped retain the knowledge of the
history, geography and geological explo-
ration. Mineral names such as eskimoite,
leifite and vikingite have a clear reference to
Greenland's cultural history. Important sites
in Greenland have similarly become world
famous through names such as kaersutite,
narsarsukite, naujakasite, tugtupite and
tuperssuatsiaite. Examination of names
which directly refer to important people in
early geological exploration such as bøg-
gildite, bøgvadite, kornerupine, lorenzenite,
rinkite, steenstrupine and ussingite, brings
to mind the Danish exploration work. A
similar list of minerals named after contem-
porary geologists is just as extensive and a
reminder that exploration is still alive and
well.
cial place in mineral research, even though
many minerals are limited to unusual and
rare formations. At all events, several of
them have shown the way to understand-
ing the geological processes and identifying
possible deposits of mineral resources. In
naming minerals from type localities, miner-
alogists in complete accord with tradition,
have helped retain the knowledge of the
history, geography and geological explo-
ration. Mineral names such as eskimoite,
leifite and vikingite have a clear reference to
Greenland's cultural history. Important sites
in Greenland have similarly become world
famous through names such as kaersutite,
narsarsukite, naujakasite, tugtupite and
tuperssuatsiaite. Examination of names
which directly refer to important people in
early geological exploration such as bøg-
gildite, bøgvadite, kornerupine, lorenzenite,
rinkite, steenstrupine and ussingite, brings
to mind the Danish exploration work. A
similar list of minerals named after contem-
porary geologists is just as extensive and a
reminder that exploration is still alive and
well.
Minerals and mineral resources
Mineral resources have a high priority in the
socio-economic development of today's
Greenland. Such priorities require the pres-
ence of a large number of mineral resources
which form the foundations of mineral
exploitation and mining, just as in other
parts of the world. From 1990 to 2004
there was no exploitation of minerals, after
almost 150 years of mining. On the other
hand, there has been great activity in the
exploration for new deposits and surveys of
existing finds. Mineral resources known in
Greenland sOFar are primarily located as the
socio-economic development of today's
Greenland. Such priorities require the pres-
ence of a large number of mineral resources
which form the foundations of mineral
exploitation and mining, just as in other
parts of the world. From 1990 to 2004
there was no exploitation of minerals, after
almost 150 years of mining. On the other
hand, there has been great activity in the
exploration for new deposits and surveys of
existing finds. Mineral resources known in
Greenland sOFar are primarily located as the
primary in-situ deposits. This contrasts with
the secondary supergene deposits where
the mineral resources are enriched in gravel
and sand in rivers and on beaches, formed
by erosion of the mountains. Many of the
secondary deposits in Greenland were prob-
ably removed by glaciers of the Ice Age.
The geological conditions in the Greenland
geological environment are now well
known and the many useful minerals pro-
vide good opportunity for identifying locali-
ties where exploitation of mineral resources
could take place. Known mineral deposits
the secondary supergene deposits where
the mineral resources are enriched in gravel
and sand in rivers and on beaches, formed
by erosion of the mountains. Many of the
secondary deposits in Greenland were prob-
ably removed by glaciers of the Ice Age.
The geological conditions in the Greenland
geological environment are now well
known and the many useful minerals pro-
vide good opportunity for identifying locali-
ties where exploitation of mineral resources
could take place. Known mineral deposits
contain gold, the platinum group elements,
molybdenum, nickel, the specialty metals
tantalum and niobium (in the mineral pyro-
chlore) as well as several forms of industrial
minerals. Industrial minerals are a large
group of mineral resources which can be
used directly after mining without particular
refining. This may include minerals for the
construction sector, for casting and grinding
as well as minerals used as fillers for the
paper and dyeing industry. Efforts up to
now may also lead to new finds of dia-
monds as well as exploitation of well
known deposits of rubies.
tantalum and niobium (in the mineral pyro-
chlore) as well as several forms of industrial
minerals. Industrial minerals are a large
group of mineral resources which can be
used directly after mining without particular
refining. This may include minerals for the
construction sector, for casting and grinding
as well as minerals used as fillers for the
paper and dyeing industry. Efforts up to
now may also lead to new finds of dia-
monds as well as exploitation of well
known deposits of rubies.
Mineral exploitation in Greenland can be
accomplished under very varying conditions,
and this is illustrated in the history of the
three most important mining companies.
From 18561987 the mineral cryolite was
exploited as an industrial mineral near
Ivittuut in South Greenland where a total of
3.7 million t of cryolite ore was mined from
an open pit. The brief period from 1956 to
1963 saw lead-zinc exploitation in Mesters-
vig in East Greenland, when 0.6 million t of
galenite and sphalerite ore were extracted
via underground mining. From 1973 to
1990 there was extensive zinc-lead-silver
mining in Maarmorilik, from where 11.3
million t of ore containing sphalerite and sil-
ver-containing galenite were extracted in
underground mining. All these activities
ceased because the reserves of ore had
more or less been exhausted.
and this is illustrated in the history of the
three most important mining companies.
From 18561987 the mineral cryolite was
exploited as an industrial mineral near
Ivittuut in South Greenland where a total of
3.7 million t of cryolite ore was mined from
an open pit. The brief period from 1956 to
1963 saw lead-zinc exploitation in Mesters-
vig in East Greenland, when 0.6 million t of
galenite and sphalerite ore were extracted
via underground mining. From 1973 to
1990 there was extensive zinc-lead-silver
mining in Maarmorilik, from where 11.3
million t of ore containing sphalerite and sil-
ver-containing galenite were extracted in
underground mining. All these activities
ceased because the reserves of ore had
more or less been exhausted.
Cryolite Greenland's 'white
gold'
gold'
'White gold' has with good reason become
the term associated with exploitation of cry-
olite in Greenland. This wealth meant that
the owners of the mining company really
did have free access to something which
approached a `vein of gold', or better, for
money flooded in and expenses were small.
There was no way of foreseeing this adven-
ture when mining began at the site in
1856.
the term associated with exploitation of cry-
olite in Greenland. This wealth meant that
the owners of the mining company really
did have free access to something which
approached a `vein of gold', or better, for
money flooded in and expenses were small.
There was no way of foreseeing this adven-
ture when mining began at the site in
1856.
The cryolite deposit was first described in
detail during the exploration in 1806-
1813 carried out by the mineralogist K.L.
Giesecke. The chemist, Professor Julius
Thomsen, described a process whereby cry-
1813 carried out by the mineralogist K.L.
Giesecke. The chemist, Professor Julius
Thomsen, described a process whereby cry-
4
Group crystals of red corundum (ruby) in mica
schist, Maniitsoq area, West Greenland.
Longest crystal: 15 cm. Photo OJ.
schist, Maniitsoq area, West Greenland.
Longest crystal: 15 cm. Photo OJ.
Blue Lazurite cystals surrounded by white scapo-
lite and black amphibole, Maniitsoq area, West
Greenland. Size of sample: 5.0 x 5.5 cm. Photo
OJ.
lite and black amphibole, Maniitsoq area, West
Greenland. Size of sample: 5.0 x 5.5 cm. Photo
OJ.
MINERAL S I N GREENLAND
4
5
MINERAL S I N GREENLAND
olite could be converted into soda, which at
that time was an important element in a
spiralling chemical industry. In 1854-56 the
first shipments of cryolite were sent to
Denmark, and in 1859 the first cryolite fac-
tory could be opened in Copenhagen. At
the same time there were also experiments
with other uses of cryolite: manufacture of
alum and as a fluxing agent in the manu-
facture of mirrors and enamelling. Minerals
such as jarlite, thomsenolite and weberite
from the site are named after people who
were important for exploitation of the
deposit. Cryolite belongs to a group of min-
erals containing fluorine, all of which are
extremely rare and only found in very few -
other places in the world.
In 1886 two scientists, the American C.M.
Hall and the Frenchman P.T. Héroult, inde-
pendently of each other, were ready with a
method to make aluminium, and cryolite
was an essential additive in the process. The
that time was an important element in a
spiralling chemical industry. In 1854-56 the
first shipments of cryolite were sent to
Denmark, and in 1859 the first cryolite fac-
tory could be opened in Copenhagen. At
the same time there were also experiments
with other uses of cryolite: manufacture of
alum and as a fluxing agent in the manu-
facture of mirrors and enamelling. Minerals
such as jarlite, thomsenolite and weberite
from the site are named after people who
were important for exploitation of the
deposit. Cryolite belongs to a group of min-
erals containing fluorine, all of which are
extremely rare and only found in very few -
other places in the world.
In 1886 two scientists, the American C.M.
Hall and the Frenchman P.T. Héroult, inde-
pendently of each other, were ready with a
method to make aluminium, and cryolite
was an essential additive in the process. The
metal had already been demonstrated in
1825 by the Dane, Professor H.C. Ørsted,
who was also Julius Thomsen's tutor. At
that time the experiment was very difficult
as the only aluminium ore available, baux-
ite, had a melting point of 2000°C. The
new process, using cryolite, halved this tem-
perature. With the aluminium industry as
the customer, the way was now paved for
the future use of cryolite, which no longer
required costly processing in the factory in
Copenhagen. Now, the ore only needed
cleaning of a few impurities such as the
minerals siderite, galenite and chalcopyrite.
However, demand for aluminium was not
great in 1902, when the firm became a lim-
ited company under the name Øresunds
Chemiske Fabriker. The First World War
changed this situation dramatically and rev-
enues rocketed as new applications in the
rapidly growing aviation industry began to
show themselves.
1825 by the Dane, Professor H.C. Ørsted,
who was also Julius Thomsen's tutor. At
that time the experiment was very difficult
as the only aluminium ore available, baux-
ite, had a melting point of 2000°C. The
new process, using cryolite, halved this tem-
perature. With the aluminium industry as
the customer, the way was now paved for
the future use of cryolite, which no longer
required costly processing in the factory in
Copenhagen. Now, the ore only needed
cleaning of a few impurities such as the
minerals siderite, galenite and chalcopyrite.
However, demand for aluminium was not
great in 1902, when the firm became a lim-
ited company under the name Øresunds
Chemiske Fabriker. The First World War
changed this situation dramatically and rev-
enues rocketed as new applications in the
rapidly growing aviation industry began to
show themselves.
Since the issue of the first exploitation con-
cession in 1859, the state had secured itself
a moderate tax for each tonne of cryolite
extracted. In 1940 the concession was up
for renewal and the Danish state took over
half of the shares in the company, which
was converted to Kryolitselskabet Øresund
A/S. During World War II, the mine contin-
ued to produce cryolite, which was instru-
mental in the procurement of aluminium to
the allied forces.
cession in 1859, the state had secured itself
a moderate tax for each tonne of cryolite
extracted. In 1940 the concession was up
for renewal and the Danish state took over
half of the shares in the company, which
was converted to Kryolitselskabet Øresund
A/S. During World War II, the mine contin-
ued to produce cryolite, which was instru-
mental in the procurement of aluminium to
the allied forces.
Rapid industrial expansion in the post
war years saw increasing demand for alu-
minium and after 100 years, purified cryo-
lite was still the main product of the mine.
In 1987 the final profitable residues of cryo-
lite ore were shipped from Ivittuut, however,
and the company was closed. An important
part of the story is that, throughout its life-
time, the cryolite mine in Ivittuut was the
only one of its kind in the world. Today the
former mine site is an open pit quarry full of
minium and after 100 years, purified cryo-
lite was still the main product of the mine.
In 1987 the final profitable residues of cryo-
lite ore were shipped from Ivittuut, however,
and the company was closed. An important
part of the story is that, throughout its life-
time, the cryolite mine in Ivittuut was the
only one of its kind in the world. Today the
former mine site is an open pit quarry full of
Piles (box formed) of cryolite on the quay ready for loading in Ivittuut 1920,
South Greenland. Photo: IMMM archive. Insert : Cryolite rock (white) with
siderite crystals (brown) from the Ivittuut cryolite mine, South Greenland.
Size of sample: 8 x 10 cm.
South Greenland. Photo: IMMM archive. Insert : Cryolite rock (white) with
siderite crystals (brown) from the Ivittuut cryolite mine, South Greenland.
Size of sample: 8 x 10 cm.
5
6
a:
Group of cryolite crystals,
Ivittuut. Field of view: 11 x 16
cm. Photo: OJ.
cm. Photo: OJ.
b:
Group of pachnolite crystals,
Ivittuut. Field of view: 3 x 3
cm. Photo: OJ.
cm. Photo: OJ.
c:
Cassiterite crystals in cryolite,
Ivittuut. Field of view: 2.0 x
2.0 cm, Photo: OJ.
2.0 cm, Photo: OJ.
d:
Siderite crystals, Ivittuut. Field
of view: 4.5 x 4.0 cm.
Photo: OJ.
Photo: OJ.
e:
Column of ikaite from the
type locality near Ivittuut.
Length of column: 40 cm.
Photo: IMMM.
Length of column: 40 cm.
Photo: IMMM.
f:
Botryoidal fluorite masses,
Ivittuut. Field of view: 2,5 x
4.0 cm. Photo: OJ.
4.0 cm. Photo: OJ.
Minerals from the Ivittuut cryolite deposit
f
a
b
c
d
e
6
7
a:
Steenstrupine crystal in albite, Ilimmaasaq.
Field of view: 1 x 1.2 cm. Photo: OJ.
b:
Group of villiaumite crystals, Ilimmaasaq.
Field of view: 6 x 6 cm. Photo: OJ.
c:
Granular mass of ussingite, Ilimmaasaq.
Size of sample: 7.4 x 9.4 cm. Photo: OJ.
d:
Polylithionite mica, Ilimmaasaq.
Size of sample: 8.3 x 11.3 cm. Photo: OJ.
e)
Sorensenite (pink) in albite rich rock, Ilim-
maasaq. Size of sample: 5 x 7 cm. Photo:OJ.
f:
Tugtupite (red) togeth-
er with white albite
and brown sphalerite,
Ilimmaasaq. Size of
sample: 8 x 10 cm.
and brown sphalerite,
Ilimmaasaq. Size of
sample: 8 x 10 cm.
Minerals from the alkaline complex Ilimmaasaq
a
b
c
d
e
f
7
8
a:
Group of magnetite crystals, Gardiner.
Field of view: 3.6 x 7.5 cm. Photo: OJ.
b:
Titanite crystals in natrolite, Gardiner.
Field of view: 2.4 x 3.0 cm. Photo: OJ.
c:
Bundle of pectolite crystals, Batbjerg near
Gardiner. Field of view: 7.4 x 9.4 cm. Photo: OJ.
d:
Perovskite crystal, Gardiner.
Field of view: 5.5 x 7.8 cm. Photo: OJ.
e:
Apatite crystals, Gardiner. Photo: OJ.
f: Andradite garnet crystals in natrolite, Gardiner.
f: Andradite garnet crystals in natrolite, Gardiner.
Field of view: 4.8 x 7.2 cm. Photo: OJ.
Minerals from the alkaline complex at Gardiner
f
e
c
d
b
a
8
9
invasive seawater and as an innocent inland
lake it says very little about the greatest
mineral adventure Greenland has seen to
date.
lake it says very little about the greatest
mineral adventure Greenland has seen to
date.
The classic mineral collection
The research tradition surrounding Green -
land's minerals, which developed after
Giesecke's travels in Greenland in the early
1800s, quickly became visible in Denmark
and the rest of Europe in the increasingly
popular natural science museums. Giesecke
generously donated collections and valuable
pieces to royalty, scientific societies and
selected individuals from throughout
Europe; collections which understandably
included unique mineral samples from
Greenland. Cities such as Berlin, Weimar,
Munich, Frankfurt and Augsburg in Ger-
many, Graz and Vienna in Austria, and not
least Copenhagen benefited from these col-
lections. The largest collection ended in
Vienna with the Austrian Kaiser. The collec-
tion included 872 mineral samples, mostly
from Greenland. The extremely unusual
minerals cryolite, arfvedsonite and eudialyte
were amongst the classic mineral samples
which at that time could only be obtained
from Greenland. Even though tourmaline
was already well known in collections from
land's minerals, which developed after
Giesecke's travels in Greenland in the early
1800s, quickly became visible in Denmark
and the rest of Europe in the increasingly
popular natural science museums. Giesecke
generously donated collections and valuable
pieces to royalty, scientific societies and
selected individuals from throughout
Europe; collections which understandably
included unique mineral samples from
Greenland. Cities such as Berlin, Weimar,
Munich, Frankfurt and Augsburg in Ger-
many, Graz and Vienna in Austria, and not
least Copenhagen benefited from these col-
lections. The largest collection ended in
Vienna with the Austrian Kaiser. The collec-
tion included 872 mineral samples, mostly
from Greenland. The extremely unusual
minerals cryolite, arfvedsonite and eudialyte
were amongst the classic mineral samples
which at that time could only be obtained
from Greenland. Even though tourmaline
was already well known in collections from
other places than Greenland, one of
Giesecke's colleagues in Scotland, Robert
Allan, remarked in 1813 on the impressive
tourmaline crystals from Greenland, "that
they were not lacking in any museum".
Giesecke's colleagues in Scotland, Robert
Allan, remarked in 1813 on the impressive
tourmaline crystals from Greenland, "that
they were not lacking in any museum".
The deposits at Ivittuut (Ivigtut) and later
at Ilimmaasaq (Ilímaussaq) soon contributed
new, much sought-after minerals as
research developed. Disko, further north
along the west coast, yielded samples of
telluric (metallic) iron, which were also
amongst popular museum pieces. The
Danish mineralogists of the time also had
access to Norwegian specialities such as
metallic silver, Icelandic materials of double
spar (calcite) and rare zeolites, and these
provided a formidable basis for publicity,
and for exchanges of minerals. Thus, from
early on, the Geological Museum in
Copenhagen could establish a collection in
a class of its own, which still provides the
reference foundation for innumerable min-
eralogical and geological studies.
new, much sought-after minerals as
research developed. Disko, further north
along the west coast, yielded samples of
telluric (metallic) iron, which were also
amongst popular museum pieces. The
Danish mineralogists of the time also had
access to Norwegian specialities such as
metallic silver, Icelandic materials of double
spar (calcite) and rare zeolites, and these
provided a formidable basis for publicity,
and for exchanges of minerals. Thus, from
early on, the Geological Museum in
Copenhagen could establish a collection in
a class of its own, which still provides the
reference foundation for innumerable min-
eralogical and geological studies.
Famous mineral occurrences in
Greenland
Greenland
As demonstrated since the early 1800s,
Giesecke initiated the reputation of the site
known as the cryolite mine at Ivittuut
(Ivigtut) in South Greenland. For about 200
Giesecke initiated the reputation of the site
known as the cryolite mine at Ivittuut
(Ivigtut) in South Greenland. For about 200
years the deposit has been the breeding
ground for much of the mineralogical and
geological exploration in Greenland. Activ-
ities in Ivittuut resulted in finds of numerous
minerals in the cryolite mass and the sur-
rounding rocks. Close to 20 of the minerals
were new to science and they have received
a reputation as being characteristic minerals
of the site.
ground for much of the mineralogical and
geological exploration in Greenland. Activ-
ities in Ivittuut resulted in finds of numerous
minerals in the cryolite mass and the sur-
rounding rocks. Close to 20 of the minerals
were new to science and they have received
a reputation as being characteristic minerals
of the site.
Other geological deposits in Greenland
have later received correspondingly great
attention because of the unique mineral
accumulations. The Ilímaussaq nepheline-
syenite intrusion near Narsaq in South
Greenland has made a particular contribu-
tion to the number of new minerals. The
pegmatite deposit at Narsaarsuk
(Narssârssuk) is in the same category of
famous mineral deposits, and all these are
from the same geological environment and
period; the Proterozoice Gardar period. In
East Greenland the Palaeogene formations,
the Gardiner alkaline complex and the
Skaergaard layered gabbro intrusion, are
deposits with many notable minerals. The
Fiskenæsset anorthosite complex at
Qeqertarsuatsaat in West Greenland is an
example of a famous mineral location with-
attention because of the unique mineral
accumulations. The Ilímaussaq nepheline-
syenite intrusion near Narsaq in South
Greenland has made a particular contribu-
tion to the number of new minerals. The
pegmatite deposit at Narsaarsuk
(Narssârssuk) is in the same category of
famous mineral deposits, and all these are
from the same geological environment and
period; the Proterozoice Gardar period. In
East Greenland the Palaeogene formations,
the Gardiner alkaline complex and the
Skaergaard layered gabbro intrusion, are
deposits with many notable minerals. The
Fiskenæsset anorthosite complex at
Qeqertarsuatsaat in West Greenland is an
example of a famous mineral location with-
Group of crystals of narsarsukit in quartz from
the type locality at Narsaarsuk in South Green-
land. Field of view: 4.4 x 5.2 cm. Photo: OJ.
the type locality at Narsaarsuk in South Green-
land. Field of view: 4.4 x 5.2 cm. Photo: OJ.
Trenching for samples at the type locality
Narsaarsuk in South Greenland. Photo: OJ.
Narsaarsuk in South Greenland. Photo: OJ.
.
9
10
MINERAL S I N GREENLAND
in the bedrock environment. Because of the
mineral knowledge now available, all these
formations are at the centre of modern
mineral resources exploration in Greenland.
The Ilímaussaq intrusion in South Greenland
will perhaps receive the same attention as
the cryolite deposit, mineralogically speak-
ing as well as from a geological history per-
spective. The intrusion was to become an
enormous research field and the naming of
rock types enriched geological nomencla-
ture with several more Greenlandic-sound-
ing names. The deposit has made great
contributions to the number of new miner-
als of which 11 are still only known from
this one location. A few of the many exam-
mineral knowledge now available, all these
formations are at the centre of modern
mineral resources exploration in Greenland.
The Ilímaussaq intrusion in South Greenland
will perhaps receive the same attention as
the cryolite deposit, mineralogically speak-
ing as well as from a geological history per-
spective. The intrusion was to become an
enormous research field and the naming of
rock types enriched geological nomencla-
ture with several more Greenlandic-sound-
ing names. The deposit has made great
contributions to the number of new miner-
als of which 11 are still only known from
this one location. A few of the many exam-
ples are steenstrupine, eudialyte and tug-
tupite, and these have made the intrusion
world famous in both a research and miner-
al resources context. Steenstrupine, which
has been at the centre of attempts to ex-
tract uranium, and eudialyte is an extremely
well suited zirconium ore. Tugtupite is rec-
ognised as a much sought after stone for
jewellery after its origin was described from
Greenland.
tupite, and these have made the intrusion
world famous in both a research and miner-
al resources context. Steenstrupine, which
has been at the centre of attempts to ex-
tract uranium, and eudialyte is an extremely
well suited zirconium ore. Tugtupite is rec-
ognised as a much sought after stone for
jewellery after its origin was described from
Greenland.
The minerals in Greenland's Archaean
basement have often attracted attention.
From the basement in West Greenland,
these include, graphite, beautiful crystals of
reddish corundum (such as rubies and sap-
phires), and black tourmaline, azure-blue
lazurite, sky-blue sapphirine, turquoise ama-
From the basement in West Greenland,
these include, graphite, beautiful crystals of
reddish corundum (such as rubies and sap-
phires), and black tourmaline, azure-blue
lazurite, sky-blue sapphirine, turquoise ama-
zonite or grains of gold in quartz veins, and
there are many more. It is characteristic that
many of these mineral types have also been
at the centre of mineral resources projects
and expectations of financial adventures.
there are many more. It is characteristic that
many of these mineral types have also been
at the centre of mineral resources projects
and expectations of financial adventures.
The oldest bedrock in the West Green-
land Kangerlussuaq area has recently
gained attention with a number of dykes of
kimberlite and ultramafic lamprophyre from
the Cambrium period. These dykes have
reveal ed diamond contents and to date
explorations have demonstrated more than
1000 microdiamonds and a small number
of macrodiamonds. The largest diamond
found sOFar of 2.39 carats, was reported in
2006.
gained attention with a number of dykes of
kimberlite and ultramafic lamprophyre from
the Cambrium period. These dykes have
reveal ed diamond contents and to date
explorations have demonstrated more than
1000 microdiamonds and a small number
of macrodiamonds. The largest diamond
found sOFar of 2.39 carats, was reported in
2006.
From younger periods in the Palaeo -
gene there are examples of minerals which
resulted from the dominant alkaline, ultra-
basic and carbonatitic magmatism. The
Gardiner complex in East Greenland has
turned out to be one of Greenland's treas-
ure chests of crystals. There are 60 different
minerals here, developed in the most per-
fect crystal shapes and often in sizes of sev-
eral centimetres. There are incredibly well-
developed examples of perovskite, mag-
netite, titanite, and apatite which bear wit-
ness to the perfect conditions for crystal for-
mation found here.
resulted from the dominant alkaline, ultra-
basic and carbonatitic magmatism. The
Gardiner complex in East Greenland has
turned out to be one of Greenland's treas-
ure chests of crystals. There are 60 different
minerals here, developed in the most per-
fect crystal shapes and often in sizes of sev-
eral centimetres. There are incredibly well-
developed examples of perovskite, mag-
netite, titanite, and apatite which bear wit-
ness to the perfect conditions for crystal for-
mation found here.
A mineralogical speciality is the deposit
of telluric iron in the Palaeogene basalts of
West Greenland. Lumps of elementary
West Greenland. Lumps of elementary
Plenty of coarse-grained phlogopite on the sur-
face of eroded ridges of phlogopite rich rocks
in the alkaline deposit Gardiner in East Green -
land. Photo: OJ.
face of eroded ridges of phlogopite rich rocks
in the alkaline deposit Gardiner in East Green -
land. Photo: OJ.
Diamonds from kimberlite dykes in the Kanger -
lussuaq area in West Greenland.
(a) is a microdiamond.
(b) is a 2.4 carat diamond. Photo: HR.
lussuaq area in West Greenland.
(a) is a microdiamond.
(b) is a 2.4 carat diamond. Photo: HR.
In-situ gold in ore (quartz vein) from the
Nalunaq Gold Mine in South Greenland.
.
Nalunaq Gold Mine in South Greenland.
.
a
b
10
11
a:
Large group of leifite crystals,
Narsaarsuk, South Greenland. Field of
view: 8.5 x 14.0 cm. Photo: OJ.
view: 8.5 x 14.0 cm. Photo: OJ.
b:
Greyish green crystals of apatite in
carbonatitic dolomite, Sarfartoq,
West Greenland.
Size of sample: 8 x 12 cm.
West Greenland.
Size of sample: 8 x 12 cm.
c:
Crystals of epididymite grown as
trillings, Narsaarsuk, South Green-
land. Length of crystal: 1 cm.
Photo: RAG.
land. Length of crystal: 1 cm.
Photo: RAG.
d:
Cleavage fragment of red corundum
(ruby), Qeqertarsuatsiaat, West
Greenland. Field of view:
4.9 x 4.4 cm. Photo: OJ.
Greenland. Field of view:
4.9 x 4.4 cm. Photo: OJ.
e:
Crystal of kornerupine in anorthosite
rock, Qeqertarsuatsiaat, West Green-
land. Field of view: 5.0 x 5.6 cm.
Photo: OJ.
land. Field of view: 5.0 x 5.6 cm.
Photo: OJ.
f:
Crystal of black tourmaline, Ameralik
fjord, West Greenland.
Size of crystal: 5 x 14 cm. Photo: OJ.
Size of crystal: 5 x 14 cm. Photo: OJ.
Minerals from West and South Greenland
a
b
d
f
c
e
11
metallic iron have been formed in nature by
processes in which the basalt has been in
contact with earlier coal deposits.
processes in which the basalt has been in
contact with earlier coal deposits.
Of course, if mineral names are to be
approved by international bodies, the min-
erals must be well defined natural chemical
compounds. When naming minerals, miner-
alogists have demonstrated no lack of
imagination, but even so it has not been
possible to reserve Greenland's most obvi-
ous name sources for genuine minerals. On
the other hand exciting rocks have received
these names: the flaming amphibole rock
`Nuummit' after Greenland's capital, and
the grass-green fuchsite quartzite `Green-
landite'.
erals must be well defined natural chemical
compounds. When naming minerals, miner-
alogists have demonstrated no lack of
imagination, but even so it has not been
possible to reserve Greenland's most obvi-
ous name sources for genuine minerals. On
the other hand exciting rocks have received
these names: the flaming amphibole rock
`Nuummit' after Greenland's capital, and
the grass-green fuchsite quartzite `Green-
landite'.
Concluding remarks
Although many mineral finds in Greenland
are from deposits of varying number and
rarity, in many cases they have been vital for
mineral research. Together with the well-
described and comprehensive special de -
posits, it is clear that Greenland's minerals
have affected mineral resources develop-
ment to an exceptional degree. Accordingly,
Greenland has been rendered an interna-
tionally high status as the keeper of a
unique wealth of minerals and mineral
resources.
are from deposits of varying number and
rarity, in many cases they have been vital for
mineral research. Together with the well-
described and comprehensive special de -
posits, it is clear that Greenland's minerals
have affected mineral resources develop-
ment to an exceptional degree. Accordingly,
Greenland has been rendered an interna-
tionally high status as the keeper of a
unique wealth of minerals and mineral
resources.
Appel, P.W.U. 1995:
Ruby occurrences in the
Fiskenæsset area, West Greenland. Open File
Series Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse,
95/11
, 24pp.
Bøggild, O.B. 1953:
The mineralogy of Greenland,
Meddelelser om Grønland
149
, 442 pp.
Harpøth, O., Pedersen, J.L., Schønwandt, H.K.
& Thomassen, B. 1986:
The mineral occurrences
of central East Greenland. Meddelelser om
Grønland, Geoscience
17
, 139 pp.
Herd, R.K., Windley, B.F. & Ghisler, M. 1969:
The
mode of occurrence and petrogenesis of the sap-
phirine-bearing and associated rocks of West
Greenland. Rapport Grønlands Geologiske
Undersøgelse,
24
, 44pp.
Jensen, A. & Petersen, O.V. 1982:
Tugtupite: a
gemstone from Greenland. Gems and Gemology,
18
, 9094.
Johnsen, O. 2002:
Minerals of the World, Oxford
University Press, Oxford, 439 pp.
Johnsen, O., Petersen, O.V. & Medenbach,
O.1985:
The Gardiner complex a new locality in
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, 485494.
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37
, 80 pp.
Petersen, O.V. 1989:
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Petersen, O.V. & Johnsen, O. 2005:
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species first described from Greenland, The
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,
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Petersen, O.V. & Secher, K. 1993:
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Secher, K., Steenfelt, A. & Garde, A.A. 2008:
Pegmatites and their potential for mineral exploita-
tion in Greenland. Geology and Ore
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,12 pp.
Sinkankas, J. 1997:
Gemstones of North America,
(Vol III). Tuscon, Arizona: Geoscience Press, 527 pp.
Sørensen, H. (ed): 2001:
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research with new results. Geology of Greenland
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, 167 pp.
Sørensen, H (ed), 2007:
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12
MINERAL S I N GREENLAND
Front cover photograph
Eudialyte crystals (red) surrounded by
white sodalite from the Ilimmaasaq,
South Greenland. Field of view: 2.0 x
3.4 cm. Photo OJ.
Bureau of Minerals and Petroleum
(BMP)
Government of Greenland
P.O. Box 930
DK-3900 Nuuk
Greenland
Tel: (+299) 34 68 00
Fax.: (+299) 32 43 02
E-mail: bmp@gh.gl
Internet: www.bmp.gl
Geological Survey of Denmark
and Greenland (GEUS)
Øster Voldgade 10
DK-1350 Copenhagen K
Denmark
Tel: (+45) 38 14 20 00
Fax.: (+45) 38 14 20 50
E-mail: geus@geus.dk
Internet: www.geus.dk
Authors
K. Secher and O. Johnsen
Editor
Karsten Secher, GEUS
Graphic Production
Henrik Klinge Pedersen, GEUS
Photographs
GEUS unless otherwise stated
IMMM: Ivittuut Museum Archive
HR: Hudson Resources
OJ: O. Johnsen
RB: R. Bode
RAG: R. A. Gault
Printed
February 2008 © GEUS
Printers
Schultz Grafisk
ISSN
1602-818x
Key literature
Last modified: February 14, 2008
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